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Jewish Calendar by Ix Chel
Information about the origin of the modern Jewish calendar is not always historically accurate. It is often said that the calendar was formulated by Patriarch Hillel II in 358/359 AD/CE. However, it appears likely that the calendar reform at this point was simply to introduce the Babylonian 19 year cycle, which meant that lunar intercalations did not need to be announced year by year. We can estimate the date for the present full mechanism of the calendar from the amount of error that has accumulated. The benchmark for the New Moon is now accurate for a meridian in Afghanistan. If we run things back to when it would have been accurate for a meridian through Jerusalem or Babylon, the centers of Jewish life and calendar studies, we just get back to around the 9th or 10th centuries. As it happens, we know that there were controversies about the calendar in that era. Saddiah Goan (882-942), who wrote works on the calendar, participated in a dispute about whether the Palestinian or Babylonian communities would rule on calendar issues. He represented the Babylonian community (which by then centered more in Baghdad, where recourse was sometimes needed to rulings by the Caliph, than in Babylon), which won the dispute. It seems beyond coincidence that was the period for which the new Moon benchmark would have been accurate, and it implies a Babylonian meridian.
The following technique for analyzing the Jewish calendar is based on that of Charles Kluepfel, known from personal correspondence, with definitions paraphrased from Arthur Spier, The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar (Feldheim Publishers, 1986).
The date of Rô'sh Hashshânâh is determined by the occurrence of the actual mean New Moon, the Môlâd, associated with the first month of the year, Tishrii. Calculated to an accuracy of 3/10 of a minute, the length of the synodic month is expressed in special units (at 18/minute or 1080/hour) called "parts" (p). The synodic month (m) is thus 765433p long. The day is considered to begin at mean sunset or 6 PM. Noon is therefore reckoned to occur at 18h, not 12h. The Môlâd Tishrii is calculated by an absolute counting of months from a Benchmark of 5h 204p on Monday 7 October 3761 BC/BCE (the Môlâd Tishrii of year 1 Annô Mundi).
If the reckoning of days is always kept to whole weeks following an original Shabbât, the remaining excess of parts places the Môlâd Tishrii in a clear relation to the week. In the following tables for the determination of Rô'sh Hashshânâh, only the excess of parts need be stated. However, for the determination of an absolute date in relation to other calendars, a count of whole weeks and excess parts may be made for convenience from a 0 year benchmark of Julian Date 347,610d, with an excess of 60,095p. The four dehiyyôt or postponements modify the way in which the Môlâd Tishrii determines Rô'sh Hashshânâh. Note that since a zero year benchmark is used, Rô'sh Hashshânâh for the year 1 AM must be calculated with additions and subtractions just as for other years.
247 Year Cycles
y AD y AM JD d p
-3761 0 347,610 60,095
--
933 4693 2061,714 42,900
1180 4940 2151,930 41,995
1427 5187 2242,146 41,090
1674 5434 2332,362 40,185
1921 5681 2422,578 39,280
2168 5928 2512,794 38,375
For absolute dates of the Jewish calendar in Julian Day Numbers, we begin with three tables. The 19 Year Cycle familiar from the Babylonian Calendar gives us a sum of 6937d 69,715p for 19 years. Thirteen of these cycles give us 247 years, which has a sum of 90,209d 180,535p. This is only 905 parts, or 50m 17s, short of an even 12,888 weeks, which is as close as the calendar comes, in a reasonable length of time, to repeating itself. After 247 years, then, the sequence of Rô'sh Hashshânâh roughly repeats itself. It is convenient, therefore, to treat the calendar in 247 year segments.
247 Year Cycle
y d p
0 0 0
19 6,937 69,715
38 13,874 139,430
57 20,818 27,705
76 27,755 97,420
95 34,692 167,135
114 41,636 55,410
133 48,573 125,125
152 55,517 13,400
171 62,454 83,115
190 69,391 152,830
209 76,335 41,105
228 83,272 110,820
247 90,209 180,535
The table at left lists a zero year Annô Mundi benchmark and then gives the value in days and parts for 247 year cycles going back to the period of Saddiah Goan. If we wish to calculate the Day Number for, say 1 Tishrii 5771 AM, we begin by substracting the most recent cyclical year, 5681 AM (1921 AD), from this year: 5771 - 5691 = 90y. We note the days and parts for the 5681 cycle: 2422,578d 39,280p.
Next we move on to the table, at right, that breaks down the 247 year cycle. The 19 Year Cycle
y d p type
0* 0 0 L
1 378 152,869 CF
2 735 84,625 C
3* 1092 16,381 L
4 1470 169,250 CF
5 1827 101,006 C
6* 2184 32,762 L
7 2569 4,191 CB
8* 2919 117,387 L
9 3304 88,816 CF
10 3661 20,572 C
11* 4011 133,768 L
12 4396 105,197 CF
13 4753 36,953 C
14* 5103 150,149 L
15 5488 121,578 CF
16 5845 53,334 C
17* 6195 166,530 L
18 6580 137,959 CB
19* 6937 69,715 L
90 years is larger than 76, so we substract 76 from 90: 90 - 76 = 14y, and add the corresponding days and parts to our previous values: 2422,578 + 27,755 = 2450,333d and 39,280 + 97,420 = 136,700p. These numbers actually will not change so long as we are in the same 19 year cycle.
If our sum of parts ends up being larger than the number of parts in a week, we must substract 181,440p from the total and add 7d to the sum of days. If the sum of parts is still larger than a week, we must repeat the procedure. However, in this case, for 5771 AM, our sum of parts is below 181,440p and this procedure is unncessary.
Now we must locate ourselves within the 19 year cycle, which is displayed on the table at left. The remainder of years above was 14y, so we are in the 14th year of the 19 year cycle. We see from the table that this is a Leap Year (L). This of significance below. Meanwhile, we must add the days and parts for year 14 to our running sums: 2450,333d + 5103 = 2455,436d and 136,700 + 150,149 = 286,849p.
w p d
2 362,880 14
1 181,440 7
In this case, our sum of parts is larger than one week but smaller than two, so we must make the proper modifications: 2455,436 + 7 = 2455,443d and 286,849 - 181,440 = 105,409p.
We now have reduced the year count to zero and have the obtained values 2455,443d 105,409p for the year 5771 AM. Since this is for day zero of 5771 AM, we would actually need to add 1d to get the Julian Day Number for Rô'sh Hashshânâh. But it is not going to be that simple. For four reasons Rô'sh Hashshânâh can be delayed. These are the dehiyyôt, and our calculation of the Day Number must be postponed until the effects of the dehiyyôt are examined. Note in the following tables, however, that the number of the day of the week (e.g. 1 for Sunday) will be a number that we add to the total for days, as well as the day of the month (e.g. 1 for 1 Tishrii). The number of parts in our sum places us in the week of Rô'sh Hashshânâh. The number of parts in our sum is not subsequently altered.
The First Dehiyyâh
Before d p After d p
Sunday 1 0 0
Monday 2 25,920 Monday 2
Tuesday 3 51,840 Tuesday 3 51,840
Wednesday 4 77,760 77,760
Thursday 5 103,680 Thursday 5
Friday 6 129,600 129,600
Shabbât 7 155,520 Shabbât 7
Sunday 8 181,440 181,440
Monday 9 Monday 9
The First Dehiyyâh
When the Môlâd Tishrii occurs on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday -- using the thresholds in relation to our sum of parts -- Rô'sh Hashshânâh is postponed to the following day. This is done to prevent Yôm Kippûr from occurring on the day before or the day after the Shabbât or Hôshanâ Rabbâ from occurring on the Shabbât.
To construct the table, we add 25,920p (1080p x 24h) for each day; strike out disallowed days and irrelevant thresholds. Sunday and Monday of the following week are included in this table for reasons that will be apparent in the second dehiyyâh. The First
Dehiyyâh,
Closed Up d p
Monday 2 0
Tuesday 3 51,840
Thursday 5 77,760
Shabbât 7 129,600
Monday 9 181,440
The Second Dehiyyâh
When the Môlâd Tishrii occurs at noon (18h) or later, Rô'sh Hashshânâh is postponed to the next day -- or if this day is a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, to Monday, Thursday, or the Shabbât, respectively, because of the first dehiyyâh. This is done to prevent Rô'sh Hashshânâh from occurring before the New Moon, since the reckoning of the Môlâd is based The Second Dehiyyâh
Before d p After d p
Monday 2 0 Monday 2 0
Tuesday 3 51,840 Tuesday 3 45,360
Thursday 5 77,760 Thursday 5 71,280
Shabbât 7 129,600 Shabbât 7 123,120
Monday 9 181,440 Monday 9 174,960
on the mean New Moon, which may occur several hours before the apparent New Moon.
To construct the table, subtract 6480p (=6h) from each threshold. We now notice that the threshold for the following Monday is within the range of our current week (181,440p).
Format Note
In the tables below, on the left is found a notation such as "2/353/5," wherein "2" signifies the day upon which the year begins, i.e. a Monday, "353" the length of the year, and "5" the day upon which the following year begins, i.e. a Thursday. The equation to its right demonstrates how the length of the year and the day upon which the following year begins are calculated. A common year (C = 12m) contains exactly 50w 113,196p, and a leap year (L = 13m) exactly 54w 152,869p. The sequence of common and leap years is shown in the table above. The excess of parts for each kind of year need only be added to the excess of parts for the current year to determine the placement of the Môlâd Tishrii for the following year and, as a consequence and with the addition of the weeks, the length of the current year. Determining the threshold for a change in the length of years starting on the same day simply involves reckoning backwards from the thresholds of the following years, as is shown by the use of subtraction rather than addition in the equations on the right.
The Third Dehiyyâh
Common Years (C) (see below for common years following leap years)
Before Third Dehiyyâh After Third Dehiyyâh (C)
2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196 2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196
2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196 2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196
3/354/7 45,360 + 113,196 = 158,556 3/354/7 45,360 + 113,196 = 158,556
3/356/2 61,764 = 174,960 - 113,196 61,764 = 174,960 - 113,196
5/354/2 71,280 + 113,196 = 3,036 5/354/2
5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196 5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196
7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876 7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876
7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196 7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196
9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446 9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446
When the Môlâd Tishrii of a common year falls on Tuesday, 204 parts after 3 A.M. (3d 9h 204p or 61,764p) or later, Rô'sh Hashshânâh is postponed to Wednesday, and, because of the first dehiyyâh, further postponed to Thursday (5/354/2). This is done to eliminate a common year that is 356d long, making for only seven kinds of common year. Drop the year 3/356/2 and the irrelevant old threshold for Thursday. Now there is a single threshold for the change from Tuesday to Thursday for the current year and from Saturday to Monday for the following year.
The Fourth Dehiyyâh
Leap Years (L)
Before Fourth Dehiyyâh After Fourth Dehiyyâh (L)
2/383/7 0 + 152,869 = 152,869 2/383/7 0 + 152,869 = 152,869
2/385/2 22,091 = 174,960 - 152,869 2/385/2 22,091 = 174,960 - 152,869
3/384/2 45,360 + 152,869 = 16,789 3/384/2 45,360 + 152,869 = 16,789
5/382/2 71,280 + 152,869 = 42,709 71,280 + 152,869 = 42,709
5/383/3 73,931 = 45,360 - 152,869 5/383/3
5/385/5 90,335 = 61,764 - 152,869 5/385/5 90,335 = 61,764 - 152,869
7/383/5 123,120 + 152,869 = 94,549 7/383/5 123,120 + 152,869 = 94,549
7/385/7 151,691 = 123,120 - 152,869 7/385/7 151,691 = 123,120 - 152,869
9/383/7 174,960 + 152,869 = 146,389 9/383/7 174,960 + 152,869 = 146,389
When, in a common year succeeding a leap year, the Môlâd Tishrii occurs on Monday, 589 parts after 9 A.M. (2d 15h 589p or 42,709p) or later, Rô'sh Hashshânâh is postponed to Tuesday. This is done to eliminate a leap year that is 382d long , making for only seven kinds of leap year. Drop the year 5/382/2 and the irrelevant old threshold for Tuesday of the following year.
Common Years between leap years (CB)
Before Fourth Dehiyyâh (C) After Fourth Dehiyyâh (CB)
2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196 2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196
2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196 2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196
3/354/7 45,360 + 113,196 = 158,556 3/354/7 42,709 + 113,196 = 155,905
5/354/2 61,764 + 113,196 = 174,960 5/354/2 61,764 + 113,196 = 174,960
5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196 5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196
7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876 7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876
7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196 7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196
9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446 9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446
Now there is a single threshold for the change from Tuesday to Thursday for the current year and from Monday to Tuesday for the following year. Note new following year Thursday threshold from the third dehiyyâh. The fourth dehiyyâh results in three different tables for common years, with the original C table holding only for common years that follow common years.
Common Years following but not between leap years (CF)
Before Fourth Dehiyyâh (C) After Fourth Dehiyyâh (CF)
2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196 2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196
2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196 2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196
3/354/7 45,360 + 113,196 = 158,556 3/354/7 42,709 + 113,196 = 155,905
5/354/2 61,764 + 113,196 = 174,960 5/354/2 61,764 + 113,196 = 174,960
5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196 5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196
7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876 7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876
7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196 7/355/5 130,008 = 61,764 - 113,196
9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446 9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446
Note that there is a new following year Thursday threshold from the third dehiyyâh.
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This may all seem fearfully confusing. Traditionally it has been the principle matter of concern for the calculation of Rô'sh Hashshânâh. Here, however, the results may be simplified for our purposes.
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L p d d/y CF p CB p C p d d/y
0 2 383 0 0 0 2 353
22,091 2 385 9,924 9,924 9,924 2 355
45,360 3 384 42,709 42,709 45,360 3 354
71,280 5 383 61,764 61,764 61,764 5 354
90,335 5 385 113,604 113,604 113,604 5 355
123,120 7 383 123,120 123,120 123,120 7 353
151,691 7 385 130,008 139,524 139,524 7 355
174,960 9 383 174,960 174,960 174,960 9 353
The outcome of all the dehiyyôt can be summarized in the table at right. Recalling our sums for 5771 AM, 2455,443d 105,409p. Since 5771 is a Leap year, we need only concern ourselves with the column at left. 105,409p is larger than 90,335p but smaller than 123,120p. Therefore, we have the type of year listed on the 90,335p row: 5771 AM is a year that begins on Thursday (5d) and is 385 days long. From the table above, we see that the following year will also begin on a Thursday -- 5/385/5. We add the day of the week to our sum of days, and 1 for the day of the month, so the full Julian Day Number for Rô'sh Hashshânâh is 2455,443 + 5 + 1 = 2455,449d. This is 9 September 2010, reckoned, of course, from sunset of the previous day, 8 September.
The process of converting from Julian Day Numbers to Julian or Gregorian dates is examined elsewhere. Or the Gregorian date may be read from an almanac, for instance The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 2010 [U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, and Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 2008]. There on page B18, we find the "Julian Date" for 9 September given as "5448.5." This is the number in "myriads," i.e. four integers before the decimal, leaving out the "245" of the full count. Also, the "Julian Date" is for the day count at Midnight of 9 September. The proper Julian Day Number, 2454,449d, is for the following Noon, which is the beginning of the Julian Day, as before 1925 Noon was the beginning of the Nautical and Astronomical days.
For Common years, the process of using the table works the same way, except that we must select the appropriate column for the three different kinds of common years, i.e. following or between leap years, or neither. For instance, we can examine the calculation for last year, 5770 AM. The day sum looks like this: 2422,578 + 27,755 + 4753 = 2455,086d and 39,280 + 97,420 + 36,953 = 173,653p. 5770 AM is year 13 in the 19 year cycle, a Common (C) year. The part sum exceeds the threshold (139,524) for a Common year 7/355 (7/355/5, which gives us the day of the week for Rô'sh Hashshânâh of 5771). The day sum this thus 2455,086 + 7 + 1 = 2455,094d, which is Saturday, 19 September 2009.
Jewish
Months Common Years Leap Years
353 354 355 383 384 385
1. Tishrii 30 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. Xeshwân 29/30 30 30 30 30 30 30
3. Kislêw 30/29 59 59 60 59 59 60
4. T.êbêt 29 88 89 90 88 89 90
5. Shebât. 30 117 118 119 117 118 119
6. 'Adâr 29 147 148 149 147 148 149
6. 'Adâr Shênii 30 -- 177 178 179
7. Niisân 30 176 177 178 206 207 208
8. 'Iyyâr 29 206 207 208 236 237 238
9. Siiwân 30 235 236 237 265 266 267
10. Tammuuz 29 265 266 267 295 296 297
11. 'Âb 30 294 295 296 324 325 326
12. 'Eluul 29 324 325 326 354 355 356
The table at right gives us the information we need to produce Day Numbers for Jewish dates during the year after Tishrii. In Tishrii itself, of course, all we need to do is add the day of the month instead of just 1 for Rô'sh Hashshânâh. To use the table we need to know the length of the year. The Third and Fourth Dehiyyôt limit the possible lengths of years to six (rather than eight). We have the feature here that days are not added at the end of the year for the leap or "excessive" years, whose last digit is 5. We also have the curious feature of "defective" years, who last digit is 3 and so which are a day shorter than the common or "regular" years of 354 and 384 days. For "excessive" years, the month of Xeshwân, which is ordinarily 29 days long, contains insetad 30 days. For "defective" years, the month of Kislêw, which is ordinarily 30 days long, is cut down to 29 days.
For 5771 AM, what we do then is the addition 2455,443 + 5 + [month of 385d year] + [day of month] = [Julian Day Number].
Lost in all our calcuations may be a characteristic of the Annô Mundi date. If we divide the Annô Mundi year by 19, the remainder gives us the position of the year in the 19th year cycle. Thus, 5771/19 = 303 remainder 14. This works like the years of the Era of Nabonassar for the Babylonian calendar. 5771 AM corresponds to 2758 AN -- 2758/19 = 145 remainder 3.
There may be grounds for some confusion here, since 2758 AN does not begin until April 2011. However, the years of the Era that was actually used with the Babylonian calendar, the Seleucid Era, where 2758 AN is 2322 Annô Seleucidae, was reckoned by the Greeks from the previous Autumn. So 2322 ASel clearly corresponds to 5771 AM, and that is the basis of matching it with 2758 AN, even though the latter begins by Babylonian reckoning six months later.
The same year in the Jewish and Babylonian calendars is at different places in the 19 year cycle because the two cycles are out of phase. This happened because of the error that had built up over the centuries in the Babylonian calendar. The Jewish calendar of the time of Saddiah Goan has corrected the intercalation of months. The pattern of Babylonian intercalations is preserved by starting the cycle at a different point. Of course, since then, error has built up in the Jewish calendar. The 8th and 19th year leap years, at least, should be delayed one year. This would require changing the traditional pattern of intercalations, which has never been done. The existence of a center of Jewish life and religious authority, in Israel, however, does mean that the calendar could be authoritatively reformed, even if the priests of the Sanhedrîn, who originally governed the calendar, do not exist. The chief Rabbis of the Sephardic and Ashkenazic communities could easily assume that responsibility.
The Jewish Eras of the World
The Jewish and Moslem Calendars with the Era of Nabonassar
The Days of the Week
A Modern Luni-Solar Calendar
Philosophy of Religion, Calendars
Philosophy of Religion
Kings of Israel and Judah
Judaea of the Maccabees and Herodians
The State of Israel, 1948-present
Philosophy of History, Calendars
Philosophy of History
Home Page
Copyright (c) 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2009, 2010 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved
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The Jewish Eras of the World
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Before modern geology, the only estimates of the age of the world were religious. In India, we have vast cycles of times in an essentially eternal universe. In the West, estimates for a temporally finite universe were based on revelation. Judaism and Christianity had substantial material to work with in the chronology and counts of generations in the Bible. This material, however, was ambiguous, and we end up with a wide spread of estimates, over a range of almost two thousand years. Byzantine Era, as of 988 AD 5509 BC
Maximus the Confessor (c.580- 662) 5493 BC
William Hales (1747-1831), A New Analysis of Chronology 5411 BC
Scaliger's Julian Period 4713 BC
Seder Olam,
Small Chronicle of the World, 1121 AD 4359 BC
Eastern Jews, according to Abu-lFarangi 4220 BC
Western Jews, according to Riccioli 4184 BC
Chinese Jews, according to Brotier 4079 BC
Moses Maimonides, Universal History 4058 BC
Bishop James Ussher (1581-1656) 4004 BC
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) c.4000 BC
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) 3992 BC
The Venerable Bede (c.672-735) 3952 BC
Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) 3949 BC
John Lightfoot (1602-1675) 3929 BC
David Ganz, Chronology 3761 BC
accepted Jewish Anno Mundi 3760 BC
Rabbi Gersom, Playfair 3754 BC
Seder Olam Rabba,
Great Chronicle of the World, 130 AD 3751 BC
Rabbi Habsom, Universal History 3740 BC
Rabbi Nosen, Universal History 3734 BC
Rabbi Hillel, circa 358 AD 3700 BC
Rabbi Zachuth, Universal History 3671 BC
Rabbi Lipman, Universal History 3616 BC
In the Christian context, the most famous estimate of Creation is certainly that of the Irish Archbishop James Ussher, who thought that the first day of the World was 23 October 4004 BC on the Julian Proleptic Calendar, a day reckoned, however, to have begun (in the Babylonian, Jewish, and Islamic fashion) the previous sunset. Since this date was used in many English editions of the Bible in the 19th century, many people, like William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925), were left with the impression that this was the universally agreed result of Biblical research. Thus, Byran would reference it in his Creationist prosecution in the Scopes "Monkey Trial" of 1925. However, there were many Biblical estimates of the age of the world in Ussher's own 17th century, and the ones that had been used the longest originated with Byzantine historians as far back as the beginning of the 7th century.
When I was in High School, I used to ask Jewish friends what it is that the era of the Jewish Calendar actually dated. They did not know. I had to read Isaac Asimov to discover that it was the Creation. The era was an Annô Mundi (AM), an "in the year of the world," date. The famliar Jewish Era goes back to 3760 BC, but, as in Christianity, this has not been the only estimate of the age of the world in the history of Judaism. My source on the variety of Jewish dates of Creation was a book I found while digging through the main library at the University of Texas: Modern Judaism: or a brief account of the opinions, traditions, rites, and ceremonies of the Jews in modern times, by John Allen (1771-1843) [2nd Edition, R.B. Seeley and W. Burnside, London, 1830, pp.366-367]. Since this was a book published in 1830, the "Modern" in the title now looks a little incongruous. But it is nice to see this list from a relatively naive source, i.e. one unaware of the subsequent history of geology and Darwinism. Allen was unaware of any certain source of the era, from 3760 BC, that had actually already become customary with the Jewish calendar. The "Universal History" referenced by Allen may be An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time, by George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton [C. Bathurst, London, 1759].
The Days of the Week
The Jewish and Moslem Calendars with the Era of Nabonassar
A Modern Luni-Solar Calendar
Philosophy of Religion, Calendars
Philosophy of Religion
Philosophy of History, Calendars
Philosophy of History
Home Page
Copyright (c) 2008 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved
The following technique for analyzing the Jewish calendar is based on that of Charles Kluepfel, known from personal correspondence, with definitions paraphrased from Arthur Spier, The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar (Feldheim Publishers, 1986).
The date of Rô'sh Hashshânâh is determined by the occurrence of the actual mean New Moon, the Môlâd, associated with the first month of the year, Tishrii. Calculated to an accuracy of 3/10 of a minute, the length of the synodic month is expressed in special units (at 18/minute or 1080/hour) called "parts" (p). The synodic month (m) is thus 765433p long. The day is considered to begin at mean sunset or 6 PM. Noon is therefore reckoned to occur at 18h, not 12h. The Môlâd Tishrii is calculated by an absolute counting of months from a Benchmark of 5h 204p on Monday 7 October 3761 BC/BCE (the Môlâd Tishrii of year 1 Annô Mundi).
If the reckoning of days is always kept to whole weeks following an original Shabbât, the remaining excess of parts places the Môlâd Tishrii in a clear relation to the week. In the following tables for the determination of Rô'sh Hashshânâh, only the excess of parts need be stated. However, for the determination of an absolute date in relation to other calendars, a count of whole weeks and excess parts may be made for convenience from a 0 year benchmark of Julian Date 347,610d, with an excess of 60,095p. The four dehiyyôt or postponements modify the way in which the Môlâd Tishrii determines Rô'sh Hashshânâh. Note that since a zero year benchmark is used, Rô'sh Hashshânâh for the year 1 AM must be calculated with additions and subtractions just as for other years.
247 Year Cycles
y AD y AM JD d p
-3761 0 347,610 60,095
--
933 4693 2061,714 42,900
1180 4940 2151,930 41,995
1427 5187 2242,146 41,090
1674 5434 2332,362 40,185
1921 5681 2422,578 39,280
2168 5928 2512,794 38,375
For absolute dates of the Jewish calendar in Julian Day Numbers, we begin with three tables. The 19 Year Cycle familiar from the Babylonian Calendar gives us a sum of 6937d 69,715p for 19 years. Thirteen of these cycles give us 247 years, which has a sum of 90,209d 180,535p. This is only 905 parts, or 50m 17s, short of an even 12,888 weeks, which is as close as the calendar comes, in a reasonable length of time, to repeating itself. After 247 years, then, the sequence of Rô'sh Hashshânâh roughly repeats itself. It is convenient, therefore, to treat the calendar in 247 year segments.
247 Year Cycle
y d p
0 0 0
19 6,937 69,715
38 13,874 139,430
57 20,818 27,705
76 27,755 97,420
95 34,692 167,135
114 41,636 55,410
133 48,573 125,125
152 55,517 13,400
171 62,454 83,115
190 69,391 152,830
209 76,335 41,105
228 83,272 110,820
247 90,209 180,535
The table at left lists a zero year Annô Mundi benchmark and then gives the value in days and parts for 247 year cycles going back to the period of Saddiah Goan. If we wish to calculate the Day Number for, say 1 Tishrii 5771 AM, we begin by substracting the most recent cyclical year, 5681 AM (1921 AD), from this year: 5771 - 5691 = 90y. We note the days and parts for the 5681 cycle: 2422,578d 39,280p.
Next we move on to the table, at right, that breaks down the 247 year cycle. The 19 Year Cycle
y d p type
0* 0 0 L
1 378 152,869 CF
2 735 84,625 C
3* 1092 16,381 L
4 1470 169,250 CF
5 1827 101,006 C
6* 2184 32,762 L
7 2569 4,191 CB
8* 2919 117,387 L
9 3304 88,816 CF
10 3661 20,572 C
11* 4011 133,768 L
12 4396 105,197 CF
13 4753 36,953 C
14* 5103 150,149 L
15 5488 121,578 CF
16 5845 53,334 C
17* 6195 166,530 L
18 6580 137,959 CB
19* 6937 69,715 L
90 years is larger than 76, so we substract 76 from 90: 90 - 76 = 14y, and add the corresponding days and parts to our previous values: 2422,578 + 27,755 = 2450,333d and 39,280 + 97,420 = 136,700p. These numbers actually will not change so long as we are in the same 19 year cycle.
If our sum of parts ends up being larger than the number of parts in a week, we must substract 181,440p from the total and add 7d to the sum of days. If the sum of parts is still larger than a week, we must repeat the procedure. However, in this case, for 5771 AM, our sum of parts is below 181,440p and this procedure is unncessary.
Now we must locate ourselves within the 19 year cycle, which is displayed on the table at left. The remainder of years above was 14y, so we are in the 14th year of the 19 year cycle. We see from the table that this is a Leap Year (L). This of significance below. Meanwhile, we must add the days and parts for year 14 to our running sums: 2450,333d + 5103 = 2455,436d and 136,700 + 150,149 = 286,849p.
w p d
2 362,880 14
1 181,440 7
In this case, our sum of parts is larger than one week but smaller than two, so we must make the proper modifications: 2455,436 + 7 = 2455,443d and 286,849 - 181,440 = 105,409p.
We now have reduced the year count to zero and have the obtained values 2455,443d 105,409p for the year 5771 AM. Since this is for day zero of 5771 AM, we would actually need to add 1d to get the Julian Day Number for Rô'sh Hashshânâh. But it is not going to be that simple. For four reasons Rô'sh Hashshânâh can be delayed. These are the dehiyyôt, and our calculation of the Day Number must be postponed until the effects of the dehiyyôt are examined. Note in the following tables, however, that the number of the day of the week (e.g. 1 for Sunday) will be a number that we add to the total for days, as well as the day of the month (e.g. 1 for 1 Tishrii). The number of parts in our sum places us in the week of Rô'sh Hashshânâh. The number of parts in our sum is not subsequently altered.
The First Dehiyyâh
Before d p After d p
Sunday 1 0 0
Monday 2 25,920 Monday 2
Tuesday 3 51,840 Tuesday 3 51,840
Wednesday 4 77,760 77,760
Thursday 5 103,680 Thursday 5
Friday 6 129,600 129,600
Shabbât 7 155,520 Shabbât 7
Sunday 8 181,440 181,440
Monday 9 Monday 9
The First Dehiyyâh
When the Môlâd Tishrii occurs on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday -- using the thresholds in relation to our sum of parts -- Rô'sh Hashshânâh is postponed to the following day. This is done to prevent Yôm Kippûr from occurring on the day before or the day after the Shabbât or Hôshanâ Rabbâ from occurring on the Shabbât.
To construct the table, we add 25,920p (1080p x 24h) for each day; strike out disallowed days and irrelevant thresholds. Sunday and Monday of the following week are included in this table for reasons that will be apparent in the second dehiyyâh. The First
Dehiyyâh,
Closed Up d p
Monday 2 0
Tuesday 3 51,840
Thursday 5 77,760
Shabbât 7 129,600
Monday 9 181,440
The Second Dehiyyâh
When the Môlâd Tishrii occurs at noon (18h) or later, Rô'sh Hashshânâh is postponed to the next day -- or if this day is a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, to Monday, Thursday, or the Shabbât, respectively, because of the first dehiyyâh. This is done to prevent Rô'sh Hashshânâh from occurring before the New Moon, since the reckoning of the Môlâd is based The Second Dehiyyâh
Before d p After d p
Monday 2 0 Monday 2 0
Tuesday 3 51,840 Tuesday 3 45,360
Thursday 5 77,760 Thursday 5 71,280
Shabbât 7 129,600 Shabbât 7 123,120
Monday 9 181,440 Monday 9 174,960
on the mean New Moon, which may occur several hours before the apparent New Moon.
To construct the table, subtract 6480p (=6h) from each threshold. We now notice that the threshold for the following Monday is within the range of our current week (181,440p).
Format Note
In the tables below, on the left is found a notation such as "2/353/5," wherein "2" signifies the day upon which the year begins, i.e. a Monday, "353" the length of the year, and "5" the day upon which the following year begins, i.e. a Thursday. The equation to its right demonstrates how the length of the year and the day upon which the following year begins are calculated. A common year (C = 12m) contains exactly 50w 113,196p, and a leap year (L = 13m) exactly 54w 152,869p. The sequence of common and leap years is shown in the table above. The excess of parts for each kind of year need only be added to the excess of parts for the current year to determine the placement of the Môlâd Tishrii for the following year and, as a consequence and with the addition of the weeks, the length of the current year. Determining the threshold for a change in the length of years starting on the same day simply involves reckoning backwards from the thresholds of the following years, as is shown by the use of subtraction rather than addition in the equations on the right.
The Third Dehiyyâh
Common Years (C) (see below for common years following leap years)
Before Third Dehiyyâh After Third Dehiyyâh (C)
2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196 2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196
2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196 2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196
3/354/7 45,360 + 113,196 = 158,556 3/354/7 45,360 + 113,196 = 158,556
3/356/2 61,764 = 174,960 - 113,196 61,764 = 174,960 - 113,196
5/354/2 71,280 + 113,196 = 3,036 5/354/2
5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196 5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196
7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876 7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876
7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196 7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196
9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446 9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446
When the Môlâd Tishrii of a common year falls on Tuesday, 204 parts after 3 A.M. (3d 9h 204p or 61,764p) or later, Rô'sh Hashshânâh is postponed to Wednesday, and, because of the first dehiyyâh, further postponed to Thursday (5/354/2). This is done to eliminate a common year that is 356d long, making for only seven kinds of common year. Drop the year 3/356/2 and the irrelevant old threshold for Thursday. Now there is a single threshold for the change from Tuesday to Thursday for the current year and from Saturday to Monday for the following year.
The Fourth Dehiyyâh
Leap Years (L)
Before Fourth Dehiyyâh After Fourth Dehiyyâh (L)
2/383/7 0 + 152,869 = 152,869 2/383/7 0 + 152,869 = 152,869
2/385/2 22,091 = 174,960 - 152,869 2/385/2 22,091 = 174,960 - 152,869
3/384/2 45,360 + 152,869 = 16,789 3/384/2 45,360 + 152,869 = 16,789
5/382/2 71,280 + 152,869 = 42,709 71,280 + 152,869 = 42,709
5/383/3 73,931 = 45,360 - 152,869 5/383/3
5/385/5 90,335 = 61,764 - 152,869 5/385/5 90,335 = 61,764 - 152,869
7/383/5 123,120 + 152,869 = 94,549 7/383/5 123,120 + 152,869 = 94,549
7/385/7 151,691 = 123,120 - 152,869 7/385/7 151,691 = 123,120 - 152,869
9/383/7 174,960 + 152,869 = 146,389 9/383/7 174,960 + 152,869 = 146,389
When, in a common year succeeding a leap year, the Môlâd Tishrii occurs on Monday, 589 parts after 9 A.M. (2d 15h 589p or 42,709p) or later, Rô'sh Hashshânâh is postponed to Tuesday. This is done to eliminate a leap year that is 382d long , making for only seven kinds of leap year. Drop the year 5/382/2 and the irrelevant old threshold for Tuesday of the following year.
Common Years between leap years (CB)
Before Fourth Dehiyyâh (C) After Fourth Dehiyyâh (CB)
2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196 2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196
2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196 2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196
3/354/7 45,360 + 113,196 = 158,556 3/354/7 42,709 + 113,196 = 155,905
5/354/2 61,764 + 113,196 = 174,960 5/354/2 61,764 + 113,196 = 174,960
5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196 5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196
7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876 7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876
7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196 7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196
9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446 9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446
Now there is a single threshold for the change from Tuesday to Thursday for the current year and from Monday to Tuesday for the following year. Note new following year Thursday threshold from the third dehiyyâh. The fourth dehiyyâh results in three different tables for common years, with the original C table holding only for common years that follow common years.
Common Years following but not between leap years (CF)
Before Fourth Dehiyyâh (C) After Fourth Dehiyyâh (CF)
2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196 2/353/5 0 + 113,196 = 113,196
2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196 2/355/7 9,924 = 123,120 - 113,196
3/354/7 45,360 + 113,196 = 158,556 3/354/7 42,709 + 113,196 = 155,905
5/354/2 61,764 + 113,196 = 174,960 5/354/2 61,764 + 113,196 = 174,960
5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196 5/355/3 113,604 = 45,360 - 113,196
7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876 7/353/3 123,120 + 113,196 = 54,876
7/355/5 139,524 = 71,280 - 113,196 7/355/5 130,008 = 61,764 - 113,196
9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446 9/353/5 174,960 + 113,196 = 106,446
Note that there is a new following year Thursday threshold from the third dehiyyâh.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This may all seem fearfully confusing. Traditionally it has been the principle matter of concern for the calculation of Rô'sh Hashshânâh. Here, however, the results may be simplified for our purposes.
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L p d d/y CF p CB p C p d d/y
0 2 383 0 0 0 2 353
22,091 2 385 9,924 9,924 9,924 2 355
45,360 3 384 42,709 42,709 45,360 3 354
71,280 5 383 61,764 61,764 61,764 5 354
90,335 5 385 113,604 113,604 113,604 5 355
123,120 7 383 123,120 123,120 123,120 7 353
151,691 7 385 130,008 139,524 139,524 7 355
174,960 9 383 174,960 174,960 174,960 9 353
The outcome of all the dehiyyôt can be summarized in the table at right. Recalling our sums for 5771 AM, 2455,443d 105,409p. Since 5771 is a Leap year, we need only concern ourselves with the column at left. 105,409p is larger than 90,335p but smaller than 123,120p. Therefore, we have the type of year listed on the 90,335p row: 5771 AM is a year that begins on Thursday (5d) and is 385 days long. From the table above, we see that the following year will also begin on a Thursday -- 5/385/5. We add the day of the week to our sum of days, and 1 for the day of the month, so the full Julian Day Number for Rô'sh Hashshânâh is 2455,443 + 5 + 1 = 2455,449d. This is 9 September 2010, reckoned, of course, from sunset of the previous day, 8 September.
The process of converting from Julian Day Numbers to Julian or Gregorian dates is examined elsewhere. Or the Gregorian date may be read from an almanac, for instance The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 2010 [U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, and Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 2008]. There on page B18, we find the "Julian Date" for 9 September given as "5448.5." This is the number in "myriads," i.e. four integers before the decimal, leaving out the "245" of the full count. Also, the "Julian Date" is for the day count at Midnight of 9 September. The proper Julian Day Number, 2454,449d, is for the following Noon, which is the beginning of the Julian Day, as before 1925 Noon was the beginning of the Nautical and Astronomical days.
For Common years, the process of using the table works the same way, except that we must select the appropriate column for the three different kinds of common years, i.e. following or between leap years, or neither. For instance, we can examine the calculation for last year, 5770 AM. The day sum looks like this: 2422,578 + 27,755 + 4753 = 2455,086d and 39,280 + 97,420 + 36,953 = 173,653p. 5770 AM is year 13 in the 19 year cycle, a Common (C) year. The part sum exceeds the threshold (139,524) for a Common year 7/355 (7/355/5, which gives us the day of the week for Rô'sh Hashshânâh of 5771). The day sum this thus 2455,086 + 7 + 1 = 2455,094d, which is Saturday, 19 September 2009.
Jewish
Months Common Years Leap Years
353 354 355 383 384 385
1. Tishrii 30 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. Xeshwân 29/30 30 30 30 30 30 30
3. Kislêw 30/29 59 59 60 59 59 60
4. T.êbêt 29 88 89 90 88 89 90
5. Shebât. 30 117 118 119 117 118 119
6. 'Adâr 29 147 148 149 147 148 149
6. 'Adâr Shênii 30 -- 177 178 179
7. Niisân 30 176 177 178 206 207 208
8. 'Iyyâr 29 206 207 208 236 237 238
9. Siiwân 30 235 236 237 265 266 267
10. Tammuuz 29 265 266 267 295 296 297
11. 'Âb 30 294 295 296 324 325 326
12. 'Eluul 29 324 325 326 354 355 356
The table at right gives us the information we need to produce Day Numbers for Jewish dates during the year after Tishrii. In Tishrii itself, of course, all we need to do is add the day of the month instead of just 1 for Rô'sh Hashshânâh. To use the table we need to know the length of the year. The Third and Fourth Dehiyyôt limit the possible lengths of years to six (rather than eight). We have the feature here that days are not added at the end of the year for the leap or "excessive" years, whose last digit is 5. We also have the curious feature of "defective" years, who last digit is 3 and so which are a day shorter than the common or "regular" years of 354 and 384 days. For "excessive" years, the month of Xeshwân, which is ordinarily 29 days long, contains insetad 30 days. For "defective" years, the month of Kislêw, which is ordinarily 30 days long, is cut down to 29 days.
For 5771 AM, what we do then is the addition 2455,443 + 5 + [month of 385d year] + [day of month] = [Julian Day Number].
Lost in all our calcuations may be a characteristic of the Annô Mundi date. If we divide the Annô Mundi year by 19, the remainder gives us the position of the year in the 19th year cycle. Thus, 5771/19 = 303 remainder 14. This works like the years of the Era of Nabonassar for the Babylonian calendar. 5771 AM corresponds to 2758 AN -- 2758/19 = 145 remainder 3.
There may be grounds for some confusion here, since 2758 AN does not begin until April 2011. However, the years of the Era that was actually used with the Babylonian calendar, the Seleucid Era, where 2758 AN is 2322 Annô Seleucidae, was reckoned by the Greeks from the previous Autumn. So 2322 ASel clearly corresponds to 5771 AM, and that is the basis of matching it with 2758 AN, even though the latter begins by Babylonian reckoning six months later.
The same year in the Jewish and Babylonian calendars is at different places in the 19 year cycle because the two cycles are out of phase. This happened because of the error that had built up over the centuries in the Babylonian calendar. The Jewish calendar of the time of Saddiah Goan has corrected the intercalation of months. The pattern of Babylonian intercalations is preserved by starting the cycle at a different point. Of course, since then, error has built up in the Jewish calendar. The 8th and 19th year leap years, at least, should be delayed one year. This would require changing the traditional pattern of intercalations, which has never been done. The existence of a center of Jewish life and religious authority, in Israel, however, does mean that the calendar could be authoritatively reformed, even if the priests of the Sanhedrîn, who originally governed the calendar, do not exist. The chief Rabbis of the Sephardic and Ashkenazic communities could easily assume that responsibility.
The Jewish Eras of the World
The Jewish and Moslem Calendars with the Era of Nabonassar
The Days of the Week
A Modern Luni-Solar Calendar
Philosophy of Religion, Calendars
Philosophy of Religion
Kings of Israel and Judah
Judaea of the Maccabees and Herodians
The State of Israel, 1948-present
Philosophy of History, Calendars
Philosophy of History
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Copyright (c) 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2009, 2010 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved
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The Jewish Eras of the World
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Before modern geology, the only estimates of the age of the world were religious. In India, we have vast cycles of times in an essentially eternal universe. In the West, estimates for a temporally finite universe were based on revelation. Judaism and Christianity had substantial material to work with in the chronology and counts of generations in the Bible. This material, however, was ambiguous, and we end up with a wide spread of estimates, over a range of almost two thousand years. Byzantine Era, as of 988 AD 5509 BC
Maximus the Confessor (c.580- 662) 5493 BC
William Hales (1747-1831), A New Analysis of Chronology 5411 BC
Scaliger's Julian Period 4713 BC
Seder Olam,
Small Chronicle of the World, 1121 AD 4359 BC
Eastern Jews, according to Abu-lFarangi 4220 BC
Western Jews, according to Riccioli 4184 BC
Chinese Jews, according to Brotier 4079 BC
Moses Maimonides, Universal History 4058 BC
Bishop James Ussher (1581-1656) 4004 BC
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) c.4000 BC
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) 3992 BC
The Venerable Bede (c.672-735) 3952 BC
Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) 3949 BC
John Lightfoot (1602-1675) 3929 BC
David Ganz, Chronology 3761 BC
accepted Jewish Anno Mundi 3760 BC
Rabbi Gersom, Playfair 3754 BC
Seder Olam Rabba,
Great Chronicle of the World, 130 AD 3751 BC
Rabbi Habsom, Universal History 3740 BC
Rabbi Nosen, Universal History 3734 BC
Rabbi Hillel, circa 358 AD 3700 BC
Rabbi Zachuth, Universal History 3671 BC
Rabbi Lipman, Universal History 3616 BC
In the Christian context, the most famous estimate of Creation is certainly that of the Irish Archbishop James Ussher, who thought that the first day of the World was 23 October 4004 BC on the Julian Proleptic Calendar, a day reckoned, however, to have begun (in the Babylonian, Jewish, and Islamic fashion) the previous sunset. Since this date was used in many English editions of the Bible in the 19th century, many people, like William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925), were left with the impression that this was the universally agreed result of Biblical research. Thus, Byran would reference it in his Creationist prosecution in the Scopes "Monkey Trial" of 1925. However, there were many Biblical estimates of the age of the world in Ussher's own 17th century, and the ones that had been used the longest originated with Byzantine historians as far back as the beginning of the 7th century.
When I was in High School, I used to ask Jewish friends what it is that the era of the Jewish Calendar actually dated. They did not know. I had to read Isaac Asimov to discover that it was the Creation. The era was an Annô Mundi (AM), an "in the year of the world," date. The famliar Jewish Era goes back to 3760 BC, but, as in Christianity, this has not been the only estimate of the age of the world in the history of Judaism. My source on the variety of Jewish dates of Creation was a book I found while digging through the main library at the University of Texas: Modern Judaism: or a brief account of the opinions, traditions, rites, and ceremonies of the Jews in modern times, by John Allen (1771-1843) [2nd Edition, R.B. Seeley and W. Burnside, London, 1830, pp.366-367]. Since this was a book published in 1830, the "Modern" in the title now looks a little incongruous. But it is nice to see this list from a relatively naive source, i.e. one unaware of the subsequent history of geology and Darwinism. Allen was unaware of any certain source of the era, from 3760 BC, that had actually already become customary with the Jewish calendar. The "Universal History" referenced by Allen may be An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time, by George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton [C. Bathurst, London, 1759].
The Days of the Week
The Jewish and Moslem Calendars with the Era of Nabonassar
A Modern Luni-Solar Calendar
Philosophy of Religion, Calendars
Philosophy of Religion
Philosophy of History, Calendars
Philosophy of History
Home Page
Copyright (c) 2008 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved
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Patchwork Merchant Mercenaries had its humble beginnings as an idea of a few artisans and craftsmen who enjoy performing with live steel fighting. As well as a patchwork quilt tent canvas. Most had prior military experience hence the name.
Patchwork Merchant Mercenaries.
Vendertainers that brought many things to a show and are know for helping out where ever they can.
As well as being a place where the older hand made items could be found made by them and enjoyed by all.
We expanded over the years to become well known at what we do. Now we represent over 100 artisans and craftsman that are well known in their venues and some just starting out. Some of their works have been premiered in TV, stage and movies on a regular basis.
Specializing in Medieval, Goth , Stage Film, BDFSM and Practitioner.
Patchwork Merchant Mercenaries a Dept of, Ask For IT was started by artists and former military veterans, and sword fighters, representing over 100 artisans, one who made his living traveling from fair to festival vending medieval wares. The majority of his customers are re-enactors, SCAdians and the like, looking to build their kit with period clothing, feast gear, adornments, etc.
Likewise, it is typical for these history-lovers to peruse the tent (aka mobile store front) and, upon finding something that pleases the eye, ask "Is this period?"
A deceitful query!! This is not a yes or no question. One must have a damn good understanding of European history (at least) from the fall of Rome to the mid-1600's to properly answer. Taking into account, also, the culture in which the querent is dressed is vitally important. You see, though it may be well within medieval period, it would be strange to see a Viking wearing a Caftan...or is it?
After a festival's time of answering weighty questions such as these, I'd sleep like a log! Only a mad man could possibly remember the place and time for each piece of kitchen ware, weaponry, cloth, and chain within a span of 1,000 years!! Surely there must be an easier way, a place where he could post all this knowledge...
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